John V. Tolan

Eight centuries after his death, Francis of Assisi continues to be one of the most well-known and beloved saints of Christendom. Pivotal moments in his life and legends, such as his nude renunciation of his father, his stigmata, and his preaching to the birds, continue to inspire popular spirituality. One that is particularly drawn on in our age of ecumenism and peace building is Saint Francis' encounter with the Sultan Malek al-Kamil during the Fifth Crusade. Tolan, a historian of medieval Christian-Muslim relationships, has written an erudite history of this event and its portrayals from Jacques de Vitry (medieval historian) and Thomas of Celano (Francis' first hagiographer), to Bonaventure (Francis' most well-known hagiographer), through 18th- and 19th-century colonial depictions of Francis and modern attempts to appropriate him as a Crusade-opposing peace builder. Tolan argues that Francis has been painted anew in every age to meet current theological needs and politics.

I am reading this book for a class I am taking on St. Francis, and I only needed to read four chapters, so here goes.

In his introduction, Tolan gives the basic facts. After two unsuccessful attempts to join the Crusades, Francis finally reaches Egypt with the Fifth Crusade in September 1219. After leaving the crusaders' camp and deliberately getting himself arrested, Francis demanded to meet the sultan, an educated man known for his peacekeeping attempts. He attempted to convert the sultan to Christianity, failed, refused a money offer by the admiring Muslim, and was returned safety to his camp. Francis failed in two regards. Not only did he fail to convert the sultan, he did not even gain his desired martyrdom, though five brothers did the following January. The only direct reference to this episode in Francis' scant and scattered writings was in Chapter 16 of his Earlier Rule of 1221, which exhorts the Lesser Brothers to go among the Saracens and live subject to them as lambs among wolves, while preaching Christianity in word and deed. The Earlier Rule, which was full of Francis' deep spiritual advice but impractical and poorly written as a constitution for a religious order, was replaced by the Later Rule, which reduces Chapter 16 to two sentences stating that a brother can go "among the Saracens" if they choose.

Francis' first hagiographer, Thomas of Celano, wrote his First Life in 1228, shortly after Francis died, to satisfy the ecclesiastical need for an official hagiography of this new saint. Celano portrays Francis as a saint seeking martyrdom and preaching to the sultan. The sultan's offer of money was not an act of interfaith hospitality but a hagiographic trope of temptation akin to Jesus' assault by Satan in the desert. Francis' fearlessness was not due to his vulnerability and trust in the sultan, but to his desire to be martyred by the sultan. Celano later wrote a Second Life, including popular stories he did not put in his first volume. One of these was a story in which Francis tells the Crusaders to not fight that day. They ignore him and are miserably defeated. While modern commentators trot this out as proof of Francis' pacifism, Tolan points out that this strange story only shows Francis enjoining crusaders to not fight that day.

Bonaventure's vita, written around 1260, became the official hagiography of Francis. Bonaventure ordered all previous hagiographies to be burned. According to Tolan, Bonaventure made a less human Francis, one who always knew what to say, one who was marked by God from birth for his destiny. Bonaventure's vita is less chronological than Celano's, instead organized according to Bonaventure's spiritual theology. Bonaventure portrays the sultan in an even worse light than Celano, and even includes a story in which Francis proves his holiness by stepping into a burning fire and being unharmed (a trope drawn from the Book of Daniel). Bonaventure also portrays the event in his sermons, in which Francis not only impresses the sultan but converts him!

The final chapter on Francis' appropriation in the twentieth century chronicles interfaith and peace/justice advocates who now see Francis as open to the Muslim faith, against the Crusades, and even, according to Sufi author Idries Shah, a "Christian Sufi." John Paul II drew on this when he proclaimed Francis the patron saint of ecology and when he chose Assisi for his infamous interreligious prayer days. Tolan does not disagree with these high-minded aims. He just thinks they have little to do with Francis' historical encounter with the Sultan.

This was a dense book, full of context and historical detail lacking in modern Franciscan commentaries on the topic. (See my review of Kathleen A. Warren's book.) But unlike the Franciscan commentators, Tolan seems to lack a broader view of Franciscan spirituality, the vision that impels modern Franciscans to peace work. How do we proceed after recognizing that we are interpreting and inventing history for current needs?… (plus d'informations)

Saracens by John Tolan provides a good introduction to the literate medieval person's mindset. Most literate people in the Middle Ages were religious leaders, so the majority of the sources he cites are church leaders. Tolan shows how beginning in the 8th C Syrian Christians were overrun by followers of Islam, most often referred to as Saracens, Ishmaelites, or Arabs.

Isadore of Spain had three categories for non-Christians: Jews, pagans and heretics. His typology was taken as truth for early medieval Christians and they spent much time and energy trying to force Islam to fit one of the pre-existing molds.

The original dhimmis (second class conquered peoples, Jews and Christians) took a very Old Testament approach. Islam was viewed as a temporary trouble; a punishment sent by God to purge Christians of their sins. They thought that it was just another barbarian invasion which would soon run itself out and dissolve. They saw no reason to learn anything about Islam, but focused more on internal divisions and problems.

Once Islam conquered Spain in 711 Western Europe began to pay attention, and saw Islam as a new religious threat to be refuted. Some attempt was made to learn about Islam, and a few tracts and treatises were written against it. But the Westerners who were safe beyond the Alps still had no idea what they were talking about. However when fear of the 'other' was added to half-truths and misperceptions Islam was distorted by church leaders. Muhammad was portrayed as a trickster, false prophet and a practitioner of black magic. The sexual and worldly treasures to be found in paradise were denounced as sin by celibate Church leaders.

The Christian dhimmis in Spain and Syria living under Islam and daily interacting with it tended to view it as a heresy, while the intellectuals living in safety branded it pagan idolatry. Finally the Qur'an was translated into Latin and Westerner leaders could actually study it. Gradually a more accurate view of Islam was developed and arguments through reason were enacted to convert the Saracen. Even with the best minds of the times trying to refute Islam through conventional means they were more often than not unsuccessful. Franciscan and Dominican missionaries went to Spain, North Africa, and the Holy Land in attempts to either gain a martyrs crown and a heavenly reward (typically Franciscan) or gain converts through special schooling and training in order to dialogue with them (Dominicans).

As arguments through reason failed Saracens were viewed as less intelligent than normal pagans or heretics. If reason was not enough to persuade them then force was deemed necessary. Christian leaders became disillusioned as missionary attempts failed, and as crusade after crusade failed to gain permanent possession of the Holy Land. Islam did not fit into their nice little categories; and finally some scholars began to accept it as a separate religion. Hostility continued to rise as Christian's vilified Islam and the centuries old stereotypes persisted in later arguments. The tensions and rivalries founded by misrepresenting a new religion have impacted future generations down to our own day.… (plus d'informations)